WEEK 1: Generation of AC Voltage

Alternating Current vs. Direct Current

The figure to the right shows the schematic diagram of a very basic DC circuit. It consists of nothing more than a source (a producer of electrical energy) and a load (whatever is to be powered by that electrical energy). The source can be any electrical source: a chemical battery, an electronic power supply, a mechanical generator, or any other possible continuous source of electrical energy. For simplicity, we represent the source in this figure as a battery.

At the same time, the load can be any electrical load: a light bulb, electronic clock or watch, electronic instrument, or anything else that must be driven by a continuous source of electricity. The figure here represents the load as a simple resistor.

Regardless of the specific source and load in this circuit, electrons leave the negative terminal of the source, travel through the circuit in the direction shown by the arrows, and eventually return to the positive terminal of the source. This action continues for as long as a complete electrical circuit exists.

Now consider the same circuit with a single change, as shown in the second figure to the right. This time, the energy source is constantly changing. It begins by building up a voltage which is positive on top and negative on the bottom, and therefore pushes electrons through the circuit in the direction shown by the solid arrows. However, then the source voltage starts to fall off, and eventually reverse polarity. Now current will still flow through the circuit, but this time in the direction shown by the dotted arrows. This cycle repeats itself endlessly, and as a result the current through the circuit reverses direction repeatedly. This is known as an alternating current.

This kind of reversal makes no difference to some kinds of loads. For example, the light bulbs in your home don't care which way current flows through them. When you close the circuit by turning on the light switch, the light turns on without regard for the direction of current flow.

Of course, there are some kinds of loads that require current to flow in only one direction. In such cases, we often need to convert alternating current such as the power provided at your wall socket to direct current for use by the load. There are several ways to accomplish this, and we will explore some of them in later pages in this section.

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Properties of Alternating Current

A DC power source, such as a battery, outputs a constant voltage over time, as depicted in the top figure to the right. Of course, once the chemicals in the battery have completed their reaction, the battery will be exhausted and cannot develop any output voltage. But until that happens, the output voltage will remain essentially constant. The same is true for any other source of DC electricity: the output voltage remains constant over time.

By contrast, an AC source of electrical power changes constantly in amplitude and regularly changes polarity, as shown in the second figure to the right. The changes are smooth and regular, endlessly repeating in a succession of identical cycles, and form a sine wave as depicted here.

Because the changes are so regular, alternating voltage and current have a number of properties associated with any such waveform. These basic properties include the following list:

• Frequency. One of the most important properties of any regular waveform identifies the number of complete cycles it goes through in a fixed period of time. For standard measurements, the period of time is one second, so the frequency of the wave is commonly measured in cycles per second (cycles/sec) and, in normal usage, is expressed in units of Hertz (Hz). It is represented in mathematical equations by the letter 'f.' In North America (primarily the US and Canada), the AC power system operates at a frequency of 60 Hz. In Europe, including the UK, Ireland, and Scotland, the power system operates at a frequency of 50 Hz.
• Period. Sometimes we need to know the amount of time required to complete one cycle of the waveform, rather than the number of cycles per second of time. This is logically the reciprocal of frequency. Thus, period is the time duration of one cycle of the waveform, and is measured in seconds/cycle. AC power at 50 Hz will have a period of 1/50 = 0.02 seconds/cycle. A 60 Hz power system has a period of 1/60 = 0.016667 seconds/cycle. These are often expressed as 20 ms/cycle or 16.6667 ms/cycle, where 1 ms is 1 millisecond = 0.001 second (1/1000 of a second).

• Wavelength. Because an AC wave moves physically as well as changing in time, sometimes we need to know how far it moves in one cycle of the wave, rather than how long that cycle takes to complete. This of course depends on how fast the wave is moving as well. Electrical signals travel through their wires at nearly the speed of light, which is very nearly 3 × 10⁸ meters/second, and is represented mathematically by the letter 'c.' Since we already know the frequency of the wave in Hz, or cycles/second, we can perform the division of c/f to obtain a result in units of meters/cycle, which is what we want. The Greek letter (lambda) is used to represent wavelength in mathematical expressions. Thus, = c/f. As shown in the figure to the right, wavelength can be measured from any part of one cycle to the equivalent point in the next cycle. Wavelength is very similar to period as discussed above, except that wavelength is measured in distance per cycle where period is measured in time per cycle.
• Amplitude. Another thing we have to know is just how positive or negative the voltage is, with respect to some selected neutral reference. With DC, this is easy; the voltage is constant at some measurable value. But AC is constantly changing, and yet it still powers a load. Mathematically, the amplitude of a sine wave is the value of that sine wave at its peak. This is the maximum value, positive or negative, that it can attain. However, when we speak of an AC power system, it is more useful to refer to the effective voltage or current. This is the rating that would cause the same amount of work to be done (the same effect) as the same value of DC voltage or current would cause. We won't cover the mathematical derivations here; for the present, we'll simply note that for a sine wave, the effective voltage of the AC power system is 0.707 times the peak voltage. Thus, when we say that the AC line voltage in the US is 120 volts, we are referring to the voltage amplitude, but we are describing the effective voltage, not the peak voltage of nearly 170 volts. The effective voltage is also known as the rms voltage.

When we deal with AC power, the most important of these properties are frequency and amplitude, since some types of electrically powered equipment must be designed to match the frequency and voltage of the power lines. Period is sometimes a consideration, as we'll discover when we explore electronic power supplies. Wavelength is not generally important in this context, but becomes much more important when we start dealing with signals at considerably higher frequencies.